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SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Paul Jang  2016-07-08 03:31:41, hit : 2,276

Hermeneutics at Westminster
Theological Seminary

TITLE: SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE

POYTHRESS | DUGUID | BEALE | GAFFIN
Edited by Peter A. Lillback with contributions from

¡°This little work is presented to the public
as an introduction to the hermeneutical
method of the Westminster faculty.¡±
—PETER A. LILLBACK
westminsterseminarypress.com

¡°This is the clearest, most concise, and most compelling
case for the Christ-centered interpretation of all Scripture.
Since the day Machen opened the door, Westminster has
produced generations of pastors and teachers who faithfully
and persuasively proclaim the gospel of Jesus Christ. These
essays by Westminster¡¯s current scholars tell us that Machen¡¯s
legacy is in good hands.¡± —STEPHEN J. NICHOLS

¡°A depth of riches. That¡¯s what Westminster is as an institution.
And that¡¯s what comes through in the pages of this
brief but significant book.¡± —NANCY GUTHRIE

¡°Studying biblical theology at Westminster Theological
Seminary was a life-shaping experience for me. The professors
there helped me see the deep structure of Scripture, in
which every passage in each testament communicates the
gospel of Jesus Christ. This has brought joy to my Christian
experience and spiritual vitality to my ministry, as I expect
this book from the same school will do for many readers
today.¡± —PHILIP GRAHAM RYKEN

¡°Westminster Theological Seminary has always led the pack
in this quest, and still does, as the present book shows. It
is very much on the right lines.¡± —J. I. PACKER

¡°As true heir of Old Princeton, Westminster Theological Seminary
has borne the torch of Reformed theological inquiry and pedagogy
like no other North American seminary. Recent debate among its
own faculty over two approaches to Scripture—Christocentric and
Christotelic, respectively—called forth this book. With compelling
appeal to Vos and Machen, and with succinct hermeneutical statements
by current faculty, the authors rearticulate what Christocentric
interpretation means and will continue to mean at Westminster.¡±
— Robert W. Yarbrough, Professor of New Testament,
Covenant Theological Seminary

¡°I am happy to recommend this book because, as a Westminster
Theological Seminary student in the 1970s, I was so excited about
what I was learning that I could hardly wait to get to my classes.
Especially wonderful were classes that showed the amazing unity
of the Bible when understood in a system of Christ-centered biblical
interpretation. That is the same system of interpretation that is
taught at Westminster today and is affirmed so clearly in this book.
I am also glad to see that this book clearly explains and rejects alternative
approaches that deny the complete truthfulness of Scripture
and that are inconsistent with the legacy of faithful commitment to
Scripture that has marked Westminster Theological Seminary since
its founding.¡±
— Wayne Grudem, Research Professor of Theology
and Biblical Studies, Phoenix Seminary

¡°The organism of divine Christ-centered verbal revelation that we
know as the Bible is both more deeply encultured and more profoundly
transcultural then any of us ever grasps; but Westminster
Theological Seminary has always led the pack in this quest, and still
does, as the present book shows. It is very much on the right lines.¡±
— J. I. Packer, Board of Governors¡¯ Professor of Theology,
Regent College

¡°At its founding in 1929, Westminster Theological Seminary dedicated
itself to upholding the authority of the inerrant Word of God
and to training its students to study the Bible confessionally and
covenantally. Over eighty-five years later, it is a delight to see several
senior members of Westminster¡¯s faculty unapologetically reaffirming
these core commitments. . . . Whether you are new to the study
of the Scripture or a seasoned reader of the Bible, Seeing Christ in
All of Scripture will help you become a more thoughtful and careful
student of the Old and New Testaments.¡±
— Guy Prentiss Waters, James M. Baird Jr. Professor of
New Testament, Reformed Theological Seminary, Jackson

¡°Ours is an age rife with relativism and self-absorption. How refreshing,
then, to read a book like this that makes the case for saying
that God¡¯s Word is coherent, its truth consistent, and that it is the
means by which we stand addressed by God. But the authors do
more. They also develop the principles by which we should understand
this Word. Even though it was given over many centuries, its
primary author, God, always had in view the incarnation and death
of Christ. Christ is at the center of this revelation. This is what Westminster
has always stood for, sometimes against great odds, and it is
most commendable that this is being reaffirmed today so clearly and
convincingly.¡±
— David F. Wells, Distinguished Senior Research Professor,
Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary

¡°What a delight to read this simple (but not simplistic) book on how
to interpret the scriptures from members of the Westminster faculty.
We are reminded of a fundamental principle of biblical interpretation:
the scriptures are the word of God. . . . Warmly commended.¡±
— Thomas R. Schreiner, James Buchanan Harrison Professor of
New Testament Interpretation and Professor of Biblical Theology
and Associate Dean of the School of Theology, The Southern
Baptist Theological Seminary

¡°This is the clearest, most concise, and most compelling case for the
Christ-centered interpretation of all Scripture. Since the day Machen
opened the door, Westminster has produced generations of pastors
and teachers who faithfully and persuasively proclaim the gospel of
Jesus Christ. These essays by Westminster¡¯s current scholars tell us
that Machen¡¯s legacy is in good hands.¡±
— Stephen J. Nichols, President, Reformation Bible College;
Chief Academic Officer, Ligonier Ministries

¡°Studying biblical theology at Westminster Theological Seminary
was a life-shaping experience for me. The professors there helped me
see the deep structure of Scripture, in which every passage in each
testament communicates the gospel of Jesus Christ. This has brought
joy to my Christian experience and spiritual vitality to my ministry,
as I expect this book from the same school will do for many readers
today.¡±
—Philip Graham Ryken, President, Wheaton College

¡°Every text has a context. That¡¯s not just for verses in chapters or
chapters in books, but books within the context of the Bible. This
book, by some of the most respected scholars in the world, rightly
argues that the context of every biblical verse is the scriptural witness
to Jesus Christ and his gospel. I commend this fine work to anyone
who preaches or teaches or studies the Bible.¡±
— Russell Moore, President, Southern Baptist Ethics & Religious
Liberty Commission

¡°This is as clear a statement of the ¡®Westminster way¡¯ of reading
Scripture of which I am aware. Anyone who wonders what Westminster
Theological Seminary is all about would do well to consult
this interdisciplinary commentary on Christ-centered biblical
hermeneutics.¡±
— Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Research Professor of Systematic Theology,
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School

¡°Seeing Christ in All of Scripture is a gratifying and encouraging book.
Gratifying in that it testifies to the continued commitment on the
part of Westminster Theological Seminary to the historic Reformed
doctrine of Scripture and a method of interpretation that corresponds
to this doctrine. Encouraging in that it promises a perpetuation
of the vision of ¡®old Princeton¡¯ and J. Gresham Machen, founder
of the seminary.¡±
— Cornelis Venema, Professor of Doctrinal Studies and President,
Mid-America Reformed Seminary

¡°I found this collection of essays on hermeneutics to be vital, as it
emphasizes the necessity of ¡®an organic Christ-centered interpretation
of Scripture.¡¯ In line with J. Gresham Machen¡¯s standpoint,
Westminster Theological Seminary¡¯s current biblical scholars and
theologians provide us with the highest view of Scripture, along with
Christocentric understandings of redemptive history. This masterful
work is a testimony to Westminster¡¯s integrity, and it deserves to be
used as an excellent text for hermeneutics classes.¡±
— Benyamin F. Intan, President, International Reformed
Evangelical Seminary, Jakarta, Indonesia

¡°Historically, Reformed seminaries in Europe—Geneva, Edinburgh,
and Leiden—have been at the forefront of formulating and defending
not only the doctrine of Scripture, but also proper hermeneutical
and exegetical methods. In the New World, Westminster Theological
Seminary has now taken the lead. What is the relationship
between Christ (the governing principle of Scripture) and a verse-byverse
study of the Bible? This volume of essays by four major biblical
scholars teaches us how to provide this question with an orthodox
answer and yet remain open to scholarly discussion. I heartily recommend
it to all students of biblical interpretation.¡±
— Thomas Schirrmacher, President, Martin Bucer
Theological Seminary; Chair of the Theological Commission,
World Evangelical Alliance

¡°This book is a succinct affirmation of the unity, progressive unfolding,
and Christ-centered character of the Old and New Testaments.
The four articles interact effectively with contemporary efforts to
modify unqualified commitment to the written form of the Bible.¡±
— O. Palmer Robertson, Director, African Bible University of
Uganda; author, The Christ of the Covenants

¡°Westminster has been a distinctive champion in defending the faith
and developing biblical principles and methods of hermeneutics in
conformity with biblical teaching at the cost of possible sacrifice. In
this book, the contributors, preeminent scholars in the area of biblical
hermeneutics from Westminster Theological Seminary, present
to the world the clearest and most legitimate guide of biblical principles
and methods for interpreting the Bible. Hence, this book will
be most beneficial to theologians, pastors, theological students, and
all serious believers who desire to stand firm on the authority of the
Bible and interpret the Bible accurately.¡±
—In Whan Kim, President, Daeshin University and Seminary

¡°Westminster Theological Seminary has long taught and emphasized
that Christ is the main theme of all Scripture. Recently, however,
there has been controversy there over how he is the theme, especially
of the Old Testament. I confess that this controversy has confused
me. But Seeing Christ in All of Scripture: Hermeneutics at Westminster
Theological Seminary has been a real help. It is certainly the clearest
writing in the controversy so far, and it expresses very well the position
that the seminary came to embrace. I¡¯m hoping that it will get
a wide readership.¡±
— John M. Frame, J. D. Trimble Professor of Systematic Theology
and Philosophy, Reformed Theological Seminary, Orlando

¡°Westminster Theological Seminary has been heroic in their defence
not only of the Scriptures as the inspired, infallible, inerrant word of
God, but also in their approach to understanding and interpreting
the Bible in a manner that doesn¡¯t betray this commitment. . . . In
this book we have several penetrating essays from established scholars
in their field who pioneer the way forward for sound biblical
interpretation.¡±
— Mark Jones, Senior Minister, Faith Vancouver Presbyterian
Church, Vancouver

¡°What this book does is set out in a superb way the basic hermeneutical
principles that must underlie a Reformed evangelical approach
to Scripture. For over seventy years Westminster was known for a
unified approach to Scripture by all its faculty. After the more recent
disputes, this book reaffirms with delightful clarity how we are to
approach the interpretation of inspired Scripture, and in particular
where Westminster stands on these issues. Peter Lillback introduces
the book, and Vern Poythress, Iain Duguid, Greg Beale, and Richard
Gaffin have contributed outstanding chapters that are going to serve
a wide readership. They have brought the discussion down to a level
that will ensure many Christian readers will grasp what is at stake,
and find the content of this book sets out principles that will help direct
their study of the Scriptures. This book, notable for both its clear
exposition of the subject and its concise discussion, needs extensive
distribution and use.¡±
— Allan M. Harman, Research Professor, Presbyterian
Theological College

¡°Perhaps no other issue facing the church today carries with it pitfalls
and trajectories for error and for damage to the Bride of Christ than
that of faulty biblical interpretation. Westminster Theological Seminary
has a glorious track record of pulling us back again and again
to the essential components of biblical hermeneutics. In our day the
seminary has brought together biblical scholars and teachers with a
heart for the glory of Christ in their interpretation of the Scriptures.
Here in one place you will find a safe guide to the riches of the Bible¡¯s
witness to Christ in all the Scriptures. I commend it highly and urge it
upon all who have a heart to know God and His Christ.¡±
— Liam Goligher, Senior Minister, Tenth Presbyterian Church,
Philadelphia

¡°Seeing Christ in All of Scripture nicely captures how the Westminster
faculty handles the Bible. As a God-Authored whole, Scripture
reveals the saving, exalted Christ. He comes to us, ¡®clothed¡¯ in these
words. . . . Deep orthodoxy and profound commitment to the written
Word continue to make Westminster a blessed place to train for
ministry.¡±
— Howard Griffith, Associate Professor of Systematic
Theology and Academic Dean, Reformed Theological Seminary,
Washington DC

¡°In view of the recent controversy surrounding hermeneutics at the
seminary, it is refreshing to hear that the Board, faculty, and student
body are recommitting themselves to the historic orthodox and Reformed
doctrine of Scripture, its method of interpretation, and its
implications for the life of the church. The essays in this volume are a
welcome reaffirmation of the modus operandi of that tradition which
was embodied in the first generation of the seminary. The words of
Machen¡¯s essay in this volume reverberates in each of the essays so that
the message of the self-attesting Christ of Scripture cannot be missed
as the foundation of the seminary¡¯s service to Christ¡¯s glorious church.
As an easily accessible volume, pastors and laity will greatly benefit
from the instruction and the edification of the authors in this work.¡±
— William D. Dennison, Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies,
Covenant College

¡°For generations, the faculty of Westminster Theological Seminary
has called for scholars, pastors, and lay people alike to see
Christ throughout Scripture. This volume sketches approaches to
Christ-centered biblical interpretation that remain true to the full
authority of the Scriptures and to the lordship of Christ over all.¡±
—Richard L. Pratt Jr., President, Third Millennium Ministries

¡°In John Calvin¡¯s typical style of ¡®clarity and brevity,¡¯ the authors of
this book reaffirm what Westminster Theological Seminary stands
for. They draw connections, open perspectives, and invite consideration
and discussion. Toward the five hundredth anniversary of the
rediscovery of ¡®sola Scriptura,¡¯ these four articles not only demonstrate
the connection between Luther¡¯s theses and Westminster¡¯s theology,
but also offer essential contributions to the present discussion
on hermeneutics.¡±
— Herman J. Selderhuis, Professor of Church History,
Theological University Apeldoorn, The Netherlands;
Director, Refo500

¡°In a day when biblical scholars and theologians obstruct the view of
many in the pew, this book removes the obstacles so that the towering
figure of Jesus Christ clearly emerges from the pages of Scripture.
This book is brief and un-technical but rich in terms of its theological
significance for understanding that Jesus Christ stands at the
center of redemptive history and the Scriptures. Anyone interested in
learning what it means that all of Scripture speaks of Christ should
consult this little book.¡±
— J. V. Fesko, Professor of Systematic and Historical Theology
and Academic Dean, Westminster Seminary California

¡°Writings on hermeneutics are ironically notorious for often being
convoluted and obscure. Only after many twists and turns does one
emerge with relief from a labyrinth. Not so this little book, which has
the merits of brevity and clarity that make it a joy to read. Striking
here is not the current insistence on the Bible as an ancient and all
too human text, or the challenge for today¡¯s reader to find a cipher
to make it mean something, but commitment to respect the text
for what it is. This means taking the dual authorship of Scripture
seriously, which alone allows mining the treasures of Christ that
bring knowledge of salvation and incentive for proclamation, so
serving the solas of a reformational heritage.¡±
—Paul Wells, Emeritus Professor, Faculté Jean Calvin

¡°The four essays in this small volume do more than declare the position
of Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia; they also
succinctly and clearly promote the historic Reformed and covenantal
understanding of how Scriptures (and especially the OT in relation
to the NT) are to be interpreted. These essays—for their conciseness
and clarity—will prove to be an excellent introduction to biblical
interpretation.¡±
— T. David Gordon, Professor of Religion and Greek,
Grove City College

¡°That Christ is both the center and goal of the Old Testament is a
distinctive perspective which Westminster greatly underscores. This
is drawn from Scriptural attestation that Christ is the last spoken
word of God which encompasses God¡¯s spoken word in the Old
Testament past. . . . The representative scholars in this great work
have left no one in doubt about their collective determination to
bequeath a legacy of faithful and distinctive scholarship to their successors.
I wholly recommend this work to all.¡±
— Philip Tachin, Lecturer, National Open University
of Nigeria, Lagos

¡°Reformed theology helps us see the gospel and read the Bible more
faithfully. These brief essays help suggest ways in which our confession
might better enable us in both tasks.¡±
— Michael Allen, Associate Professor of Systematic and
Historical Theology, Reformed Theological Seminary
¡°Were the Christological prophecies and anticipations, which Jesus,
and the New Testament in general, saw in the Old Testament,
planted there by God, with the human authors having some notion
of what was involved? Or were they the retrojection of a later age,
whether or not God had some role in that later perception? The first
option affirms God¡¯s inspiration as the source of the teaching of both
Old and New Testaments. The second option drifts away from the
immediate role of God in the writing of Scriptures towards a more
Deist notion of the action of God in the world. This work concisely
outlines the understanding of inspiration, interpretation and kindred
subjects, which allows us to affirm that Jesus¡¯ interpretation
of the Old Testament was in accord with the original plan of God.¡±
— Noel Weeks, Senior Lecturer in Ancient History and Associate
of the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University
of Sydney

¡°It is a privilege to commend Seeing Christ in all of Scripture. This
volume not only affirms the continued integrity and excellence of
theological education at Westminster, it also pointedly highlights
Westminster¡¯s leadership in the propagation of biblical theology,
solid biblical exegesis, and confessional integrity.¡±
— Harry Reeder, Senior Pastor, Briarwood Presbyterian
Church, Birmingham

¡°This small book was forged out of the recent controversy over
Scripture and hermeneutics at Westminster Theological Seminary.
Written clearly and with minimal jargon, it can be read in one sitting—
but don¡¯t be deceived, for it is bursting with rich insights.
Lillback and his A-team have effectively given us a short theological
meditation on Luke 24, one that clarifies what Christocentric reading
of the Bible means for Machen¡¯s Seminary and the Old Princeton
tradition that it represents. I recommend the book highly.¡±
— Hans Madueme, Assistant Professor of Theological Studies,
Covenant College

¡°These essays set forth what is entailed in Christ-centered biblical
interpretation that seeks to be ever mindful that God is Scripture¡¯s
primary Author. They do so with a clarity born of painful controversy.
. . . Brief though they are, these pieces sketch out sound
principles for exploring both the profound unity and the variety of
God¡¯s inerrant Word.¡±
— Dennis E. Johnson, Professor of Practical Theology,
Westminster Seminary California; author, Him We Proclaim:
Preaching Christ from All the Scriptures and Walking with
Jesus through His Word: Discovering Christ in All the Scriptures

¡°A depth of riches. That¡¯s what Westminster is as an institution. And
that¡¯s what comes through in the pages of this brief but significant
book.¡±
—Nancy Guthrie, author, Seeing Jesus in the Old Testament series

¡°The authors of this short study present clearly and comprehensively
the main aspects of sound biblical interpretation. . . . By emphasizing
the interdependency of biblical and systematic theology, they argue
convincingly that Jesus Christ is not only the goal of Old Testament
revelation, but the center of the Bible¡¯s entire redemptive message.
Written within the particular context of Westminster Theological
Seminary, this book is a gift to the Church universal.¡±
—Pierre Berthoud, Emeritus Professor, Faculté Jean Calvin

¡°At a time when the trustworthiness and relevance of God¡¯s Word
continues to be minimized, I am thankful for the faithful ministry
of Westminster Theological Seminary. Through this important new
book, these eminent scholars have provided not only a clear description
of Christ-centered interpretation, but also its compelling and
life-changing nature. This is a book that is timely, accessible, and
edifying.¡±
— Julius J. Kim, Dean of Students and Professor of Practical
Theology, Westminster Seminary California

SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Hermeneutics at Westminster
Theological Seminary
Edited by Peter A. Lillback with contributions
from Vern S. Poythress, Iain M. Duguid, G. K.
Beale, and Richard B. Gaffin Jr.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Seeing Christ in All of Scripture: Hermeneutics at Westminster Theological Seminary
Copyright © 2016 Westminster Theological Seminary
Published by Westminster Seminary Press
P.O. Box 27009, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19118
wsp@wts.edu
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except for brief quotations for the purpose of review or comment.
Cover design: Sabrina Pfautz
Printed in the United States of America
Unless otherwise indicated, all English Scripture quotations are from
The Holy Bible, English Standard Version¢ç (ESV¢ç), copyright © 2001 by Crossway.
Used by permission. All rights reserved.
Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are taken from the New American Standard
Bible¢ç, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995
by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. www.Lockman.org
Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are taken from the Holy Bible, New International
Version¢ç, NIV¢ç. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.¢â
Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com
The ¡°NIV¡± and ¡°New International Version¡± are trademarks registered
in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.¢â
Scripture quotations marked (KJV) are taken from the King James Version.
Italics in Scripture quotations indicate that the author has added emphasis.
Paperback ISBN: 978-0-9980051-0-2
Hardcover ISBN: 978-0-9980051-1-9
PDF ISBN: 978-0-9980051-2-6
In memory of the founding faculty
May Westminster Theological Seminary always remain
suaviter in modo, fortiter in re
¡°The genuine believer takes the whole of Scripture as a living
organism produced by the Holy Spirit to present Christ to him. On
every page of Scripture, he finds traits and traces of the Mediator.¡±
—Geerhardus Vos, Reformed Dogmatics

¡°Jesus was the Messiah because he fulfilled what had been spoken
concerning Him in the Old Testament. He was the very One of
whom the prophets spake. He came into this world for the explicit
purpose of fulfilling what they had written concerning Him.¡±
—E. J. Young, The Study of Old Testament Theology Today

¡°The Old Testament follows God¡¯s one great plan for human
history and redemption, and the plan is not only from him, but
centers on him: his presence in his incarnate Son. . . . The witness
of the Scriptures to Christ is the reason they were written—and of
him and through him and to him are all things (Rom 11:36).¡±
—Edmund Clowney, Preaching Christ in All of Scripture

¡°God seeks spontaneous and loving acceptance of his Word.
As he wanted this in paradise, so he wants it now. Christians
must be, like the Apostle Paul, all things to all men in order
to save some. Firm and insistent in their ultimate objective,
they must approach their goal suaviter in modo.¡±
—Cornelius Van Til, A Christian Theory of Knowledge

CONTENTS
Acknowledgments | xxi
Introduction | 1
Peter A. Lillback

1 Biblical Hermeneutics | 9
Vern S. Poythress

2 Old Testament Hermeneutics | 17
Iain M. Duguid

3 New Testament Hermeneutics | 25
G. K. Beale

4 Systematic Theology and Hermeneutics | 39
Richard B. Gaffin Jr.

APPENDICES
A Westminster Theological Seminary: Its Purpose and Plan | 53
J. Gresham Machen
B Affirmations and Denials Regarding Recent Issues | 63
Board of Trustees
C Biblical Theology at Westminster Theological Seminary | 79
Richard B. Gaffin Jr.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is the product of many faithful laborers at Westminster
Theological Seminary. I am grateful to Vern, Iain, Greg, and Dick
for contributing their fine essays. I am also grateful to James Baird,
Chris Carter, Ben Dahlvang, Charles Williams, and the rest working
with Westminster Seminary Press for their management of this
project and creative input. Thanks are due to our editors: Rick Matt,
Mary Ruth Murdoch, and Stephanie Taylor. A special ¡°thank you¡± is
in order for Amanda Martin at P&R Publishing for her gracious consultation.
Finally, I would like to thank the donors, without whose
support this book would not be a reality.
— Peter A. Lillback
President
Westminster Theological Seminary

INTRODUCTION
PETER A. LILLBACK
Dr. J. Gresham Machen established Westminster Theological Seminary
to produce ¡°specialists in the Bible¡± who would preach and
teach ¡°the whole counsel of God.¡± Following Machen¡¯s lead, Westminster
has historically stood for the truth of Scripture. One dimension
of this commitment is that Westminster teaches its students to
preach Christ from the entire Bible—from both the Old Testament
and the New Testament.
In order to fulfill its founding vision, Westminster¡¯s faculty members,
throughout the seminary¡¯s history, have taken an ¡°ex animo¡±
vow, that is, a sincere, heartfelt commitment, to the Westminster
Standards. These confessional documents, the Westminster Confession
of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, are held as the
best expression of the system of biblical truth—¡°the whole counsel of
God¡±—thus far developed in the church of our Lord Jesus Christ. It
is from these documents that the seminary takes its name.
This introduction calls attention to the consistency of biblical
interpretation that exists today at Westminster Theological Seminary.
The harmony among the theological disciplines at Westminster
is due to a shared method of interpreting Scripture, a shared hermeneutic,
that is drawn from Westminster¡¯s confessional standards.
Although expressed in distinctive ways, Westminster¡¯s hermeneutic
remains cohesive and compatible throughout the theological curriculum.
It is my privilege, then, to introduce this collection of brief
essays written by four of Westminster¡¯s leading scholars. Herein,
you will find a witness to the hermeneutical unity at Westminster
through the perspectives of Dr. Vern Poythress, Dr. Iain Duguid, Dr.
2 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Greg Beale, and Dr. Richard Gaffin. Their reflections span the whole
of Scripture and express the deep continuity that courses through the
diverse fields of biblical interpretation at Westminster Theological
Seminary.
In chapter 1, Dr. Poythress, professor of New Testament interpretation,
draws our attention to how the concept of covenant
bears on the work of hermeneutics, reaffirming the perspective of
Westminster¡¯s founding professor Cornelius Van Til:
Cornelius Van Til was right in teaching that there is an antithesis
in principle between the thinking of Christians and
non-Christians, covenant keepers and covenant breakers. Presuppositions—
one¡¯s basic commitments—make a difference in
how one approaches any subject. . . . One always has to think
through what difference the antithesis Van Til speaks of makes
in the arena of hermeneutics.
First, there is a difference particularly when we consider
the interpretation of Scripture. Christians should treat the
Bible in harmony with its actual character: it is the Word of
God. Non-Christians do not share this commitment. This
makes a difference because we must pay attention to the
intention of the author if we are to interpret his work correctly.
The Bible has human authors, of course, but its main author is
God himself.
In chapter 2, Dr. Duguid, professor of Old Testament, offers
four basic principles of Old Testament interpretation that belong
not just to scholars, but that are truly accessible to the general Bible
reader:
The Old Testament is not primarily a book about ancient
history or culture, though it contains many things that are
Introduction | 3
historical and that describe ancient cultures. Centrally, the Old
Testament is a book about Christ, and more specifically, about
his sufferings and the glories that will follow—that is, it is a
book about the promise of a coming Messiah through whose
sufferings God will establish his glorious, eternal kingdom.
To say this is simply to repeat what Jesus told the discouraged
disciples on the road to Emmaus.
In chapter 3, Dr. Beale, professor of New Testament and biblical
theology, defines and summarizes some of the pivotal principles for
hermeneutics, with a focus on New Testament interpretation:
New Testament scholars generally affirm that a text cannot
mean what it never could have meant to its original author
or his readers. This principle, however, is not absolute since
biblical authors did not have exhaustive knowledge of what
they wrote. Only God has exhaustive knowledge, which is not
contradictory to the human author¡¯s knowledge but an organic
expansion of it. This is especially apparent when one recognizes
that Old Testament prophecies and narratives are understood
with greater clarity (but not in a contradictory way) in the light
of Christ¡¯s coming and the revelatory events connected with
the new covenant age.
In chapter 4, Dr. Gaffin, emeritus professor of biblical and systematic
theology, explains the importance of hermeneutics for all the
theological disciplines at Westminster, especially systematic theology:
Systematic theology at Westminster Theological Seminary
is radically nonspeculative. This is so in the sense that the
distinguishing concern of systematic theology is to provide a
presentation of the unified teaching of Scripture as a whole.
4 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Accordingly, its very existence depends upon sound biblical
interpretation. As systematic theology is a comprehensive
statement of what ¡°is either expressly set down in Scripture,
or by good and necessary consequence may be deduced from
Scripture¡± (Westminster Confession of Faith 1.6), exegesis is its
lifeblood.
The compatible perspectives represented by these four authors
have not always been encountered consistently at Westminster Theological
Seminary. In the last decade, a hermeneutical dispute arose
over the role of Christ in the Old and New Testaments. Essentially,
two diverse theologies of Scripture contended for the faculty¡¯s allegiance.
One placed Christ at the organic center of the entire Bible¡¯s
redemptive message, while the other merely located Christ as the
goal of Old Testament revelation. Resolving that controversy solidified
a cohesive view of the role of Christ in Westminster¡¯s hermeneutic,
a view that reflects the profound words of Dr. Gaffin: ¡°Christ is
the mediatorial Lord and Savior of redemptive history not only at its
end but also from beginning to end. He is not only its omega but
also its alpha, and he is and can be its omega only as he is its alpha.¡±1
Thus, this little work is presented to the public as an introduction
to the hermeneutical method that today characterizes the biblical
scholarship of the Westminster faculty.
Reformed scholars have always affirmed the centrality of Christ
for understanding the message of the whole Bible; they have not done
so without biblical precedent. As our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ,
says in John 5:46–47: ¡°For if you believed Moses, you would believe
1. This quote is from appendix C, ¡°Biblical Theology at Westminster Theological Seminary,¡±
originally published on World Reformed Fellowship, June 30, 2014; http://westm.in
/1ROGwYs. See also the ¡°Affirmations and Denials Regarding Recent Issues,¡± republished as
appendix B, for Westminster¡¯s official position on the recent controversies over hermeneutics
(adopted by the Board of Trustees December 3, 2008).
Introduction | 5
me; for he wrote of me. But if you do not believe his writings, how
will you believe my words?¡± Following the teaching of Jesus, our Reformed
forefathers interpreted many passages as portraying Christ as
the heart and goal of biblical revelation.2 The Christ-centered manner
in which the Reformed hermeneutical method engaged Scripture
developed out of the unifying principle of the covenant. The essence
of covenant theology was well captured in the climax of the Reformation¡¯s
confessional compositions, namely, the Westminster Standards.
Chapter 7 of the Westminster Confession of Faith addresses the relevance
of the covenant for biblical interpretation:
3. Man, by his fall, having made himself incapable of life by
that covenant, the Lord was pleased to make a second, commonly
called the covenant of grace; wherein he freely offereth
unto sinners life and salvation by Jesus Christ; requiring of
them faith in him, that they may be saved, and promising to
give unto all those that are ordained unto eternal life his Holy
Spirit, to make them willing, and able to believe.
5. This covenant was differently administered in the time of
the law, and in the time of the gospel: under the law, it was
administered by promises, prophecies, sacrifices, circumcision,
the paschal lamb, and other types and ordinances delivered to
the people of the Jews, all foresignifying Christ to come; which
were, for that time, sufficient and efficacious, through the operation
of the Spirit, to instruct and build up the elect in faith
in the promised Messiah, by whom they had full remission
of sins, and eternal salvation; and is called the Old Testament.
6. Under the gospel, when Christ, the substance, was exhib-
2. See, for example, Gen 3:15; 15:6; Deut 18:15;Ps 22:30; 32:1–2, 5; Isa 9:5–6; 42:1;
53:10; 55:4–5, 6; Jer 31:33–34; Ezek 36:26–27; Luke 2:32; John 6:37, 44–45; 8:56; Acts
2:29–36;3:20, 22; Rom 4:11, 16–24; 10:6–10; 1 Cor 10:1–4; Col 1:13; 2:11–12; Gal 3:7–9,
10; 1 Pet 1:19–20; Heb 4:2; 8–10; 11:13.
6 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
ited, the ordinances in which this covenant is dispensed are the
preaching of the Word, and the administration of the sacraments
of baptism and the Lord¡¯s Supper: which, though fewer
in number, and administered with more simplicity, and less
outward glory, yet, in them, it is held forth in more fullness,
evidence, and spiritual efficacy, to all nations, both Jews and
Gentiles; and is called the New Testament. There are not therefore
two covenants of grace, differing in substance, but one
and the same, under various dispensations.
These classic Reformed emphases on the covenantal unity of the
Bible highlight the necessity of an organic Christ-centered interpretation
of Scripture. All of Westminster Theological Seminary¡¯s faculty
and board members have committed to this confessional hermeneutic
since the seminary¡¯s founding. The seminary today continues to
believe that the hermeneutical method identified in the Reformational
tradition of Westminster is biblically sound and in fact essential
for a high view of Scripture in an age of doubt, controversy, and
compromise.
By holding fast to the traditional Reformed hermeneutical
method, Westminster Theological Seminary has sought to remain
faithful to the stirring speech that Dr. Machen presented to the seminary
community as the school opened on September 25, 1929,
in Philadelphia. Machen declared the following in his inaugural
address:
We believe, first, that the Christian religion, as set forth in
the Confession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church, is true;
we believe, second, that the Christian religion welcomes and
is capable of scholarly defense; and we believe, third, that the
Christian religion should be proclaimed without fear or favor,
and in clear opposition to whatever opposes it, whether from
Introduction | 7
within or without the church, as the only way of salvation for
lost mankind. On that platform, brethren, we stand. Pray that
we may be enabled by God¡¯s grace to stand firm. Pray that the
students who go forth from Westminster Theological Seminary
may know Christ as their own Savior and may proclaim to
others the gospel of his love.3
As you read the following chapters, we invite you to join us in
the historic and lofty calling of Westminster Theological Seminary
to train specialists in the Bible who will proclaim the whole counsel
of God, from the whole of Scripture, for Christ and his kingdom.
Please pray that our students may ¡°know Christ as their own
Savior and may proclaim to others the gospel of his love.¡± After all,
that is what seeing Christ in all of Scripture is all about.
3. This quote is from appendix A, ¡°Westminster Theological Seminary: Its Plan and
Purpose,¡± which previously appeared in J. Gresham Machen, What is Christianity? And Other
Addresses, ed. Ned Bernard Stonehouse (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1951), 224–233.
8 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Recommended Reading From Peter A. Lillback
¡°¡®The Infallible Rule of Interpreting Scripture¡¯: The Hermeneutical
Crisis and the Westminster Standards.¡± In Resurrection and
Eschatology: Theology in Service of the Church: Essays in Honor of
Richard B. Gaffin Jr., edited by Lane G. Tipton and Jeffrey C.
Waddington, 283–339. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2008.
Thy Word Is Still Truth: Essential Writings on the Doctrine of Scripture
from the Reformation to Today. Edited by Peter A. Lillback and
Richard B. Gaffin Jr. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2013.
1
Biblical
Hermeneutics
VERN S. POYTHRESS
Biblical hermeneutics has played an important role in nearly all
the teaching I have done over the years at Westminster Theological
Seminary. My desire is to train students to interpret the Bible faithfully,
so I am continually dealing with the interplay between broader
principles of interpretation and particular texts. Every year I teach
an MDiv-level course called ¡°Biblical Hermeneutics: Old and New
Testaments.¡± That means I am always thinking about and discussing
hermeneutics; it is a background framework when I am considering
a particular passage of Scripture.
Presuppositions for Hermeneutics
Cornelius Van Til was right in teaching that there is an antithesis
in principle between the thinking of Christians and non-Christians,
covenant keepers and covenant breakers. Presuppositions—one¡¯s
basic commitments—make a difference in how one approaches any
subject. Van Til¡¯s principles have had a big influence on my work in
hermeneutics. One always has to think through what difference the
antithesis Van Til speaks of makes in the arena of hermeneutics.
First, there is a difference particularly when we consider the
10 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
interpretation of Scripture. Christians should treat the Bible
in harmony with its actual character: it is the Word of God.
Non-Christians do not share this commitment. This makes a difference
because we must pay attention to the intention of the author if
we are to interpret his work correctly. The Bible has human authors,
of course, but its main author is God himself.
This thinking about authorship provides us with a good start in
working through the distinctiveness of biblical hermeneutics. But
there is more to it than that. Christian presuppositions and the work
of regeneration make a difference in principle in every sphere of life,
not merely on the central question of the authorship and authority
of Scripture. So we must think through how we should differ from
the world in our view of truth, our view of meaning, our view of
history, our view of language, and so on. The Bible requires a ¡°special¡±
hermeneutic because it is a special book, the Word of God. But
by its instruction the Bible should also transform our ideas about
general hermeneutics, that is, the issues concerning interpretation of
non-inspired human writings.
Based on Christian presuppositions, we engage in transforming
the very idea of what texts are and what interpreting texts means. All
texts whatsoever live and move and have their being in the presence
of God, the God of truth and power and beauty. Does that imply
that we can learn nothing from non-Christians? Van Til emphasized
not only antithesis, but also common grace. Unbelievers have many
truthful insights in spite of their corrupt hearts. But the challenges
for evangelicals are mostly in the other direction. Evangelical scholars
are disposed to use hermeneutical procedures originally developed
on the basis of non-Christian presuppositions. They make minimal
changes to these procedures, of course, to avoid directly denying the
possibility of miracles or the divine authority of Scripture. But minimal
changes are not enough. We ought to be rethinking the entire
process of interpretation on the basis of sound presuppositions.
Biblical Hermeneutics | 11
Hermeneutical Circularity?
When people hear about using the Bible to transform our ideas about
hermeneutics, it can be disturbing to some of them. The process
sounds circular. The circle begins with the Bible. We use the Bible
to derive hermeneutical principles. Then we use hermeneutics to interpret
the Bible. And so our interpretation of the Bible depends on
itself! How can we be sure that we have it right? To make the process
more complicated, we can add a third stage to the circle, namely, systematic
theology. We use the Bible as our source for systematic theology,
which is supposed to be a summary of what the Bible teaches.
Then we use systematic theology as a presupposition for hermeneutics.
And then hermeneutics guides how we interpret the Bible. In
this process, we never leave behind our initial use of the Bible, which
might be flawed.
Instead of this picture, some people would prefer not a circle but
a line. They advise us first to establish sound hermeneutical principles.
Then interpret the Bible. Then form a systematic theology.
Only in this way can you be sure of your foundations and be sure
that you are not departing from a flawed starting point.
Ah, but it is not so simple. There is no way to form sound hermeneutical
principles in a vacuum, apart from religious commitments.
You are either for God or against him. And even if you are for
him, you need growth and sanctification. You are not perfectly pure,
your mind is not perfectly pure, and your hermeneutical preferences
are not perfectly sound. That is the nature of life in a fallen world.
Therefore, we praise God for his provision. He has sent Christ
precisely for the purpose of rescuing us out of this fallen world:
He has delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred
us to the kingdom of his beloved Son, in whom we
have redemption, the forgiveness of sins. (Col 1:13–14)
12 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
As one aspect of this redemption, he has given us the Scriptures
for our purification:
Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth. (John 17:17)
Thus, we need the Bible as the guide to enable us to transform
and purify our hermeneutical principles. The circle from the Bible to
systematic theology to hermeneutics to the Bible is not a vicious circle,
but a spiral of growth and progress, guided by the work of the Holy
Spirit in illumination.
Does the dynamism of growth imply that everything is uncertain?
A postmodern skepticism might tempt us to draw a veil of uncertainty
over everything and to bolster the idea of uncertainty with
the label ¡°humility.¡± But here again the Scriptures offer a useful corrective.
The Bible says that its central message is clear and that God
has in fact designed his Word with skill. Scripture helps those who
begin in darkness by leading them into the light:
The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple.
(Ps 19:7)
Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.
(Ps 119:105)
But the path of the righteous is like the light of dawn,
which shines brighter and brighter until full day.
(Prov 4:18)
Again Jesus spoke to them, saying, ¡°I am the light of the
world. Whoever follows me will not walk in darkness,
but will have the light of life.¡± (John 8:12)
Biblical Hermeneutics | 13
I have come into the world as light, so that whoever believes
in me may not remain in darkness. (John 12:46)
Human Authors
Let us consider one area of discussion in hermeneutics: how do we
analyze the human authors? The presuppositions of the world will
tell us that the human authors of the Bible were merely men of their
times. How could they be otherwise? So, interpretation must proceed
wholly by fitting those authors into their social and historical
environments. Anything else is alleged to be a denial of history or a
denial of humanity.
But the authors of Scripture received the aid of the Holy Spirit.
Through the working of the Holy Spirit, they inwardly wanted to
do whatever God wished to do. And the Spirit is God himself, who
is the source of infinite creativity. His presence and his special work
in inspiration do not make human beings less than human. Rather,
he transforms sinful humanity toward humanity as God originally
designed it. More than that, the authors¡¯ humanity is transformed
into the image of Christ, who is the perfect man, the last Adam. This
transformation took place in a measure even in the Old Testament,
because the Holy Spirit even then was the same Holy Spirit who is
one with the Father and the Son. He acted in mercy and grace toward
human beings on the basis of the atonement that Christ was yet
to accomplish in the future.
This presence of the Holy Spirit has implications. If an interpreter
tries to eliminate the presence of God through the Holy Spirit,
he might claim that an Old Testament passage merely reflects its Ancient
Near Eastern environment and a human author caught in that
environment, an environment that itself is purely human, without
the presence of God.
14 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
But that kind of reading is certainly wrong. God is sovereign over
the Ancient Near Eastern environment, along with all other environments.
He reveals himself in general revelation through all environments,
so interaction is natural between what God says and the
environment in which he says it. This natural interaction extends also
to the human authors whom God raised up to be the bearers of his
Word. As we observed, the Holy Spirit did not transform these men
into that which was less than humanity; rather, he moved them in the
direction of the fullness of humanity as God intended it to be. But
that fullness of humanity is not something that we can equate with our
most prosaic pictures of flat and one-dimensional communication.
In the end, communication through the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit is uncontrollable by mechanical calculation. We will know humanity
fully only at the end of the process of our own transformation,
when we will be conformed to the image of Christ (2 Cor 3:18).
The Part and the Whole
Another issue that arises with regard to hermeneutics is the relation
of each part of the Bible to the whole. God caused the Bible to
be written over a period of more than a thousand years. As Lord
of history and Lord of revelation, he spoke ¡°at many times and in
many ways¡± through the prophets (Heb 1:1). Theologians call this
process ¡°progressive revelation.¡± God did not say everything at once.
The earlier communications take into account the limitations in the
understanding of people at earlier times. The later communications
build on the earlier. What is implicit in the earlier often becomes
explicit in the later. The climax to this process of revelation comes in
Christ: ¡°in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he
appointed the heir of all things, through whom also he created the
world¡± (Heb 1:2).
Taken together, these communications from God have a marBiblical
Hermeneutics | 15
velous unity centered on the divine purpose of redemption and
re-creation. Yet there is also a lot of diversity—diversity of human
authors, diversity of genres, diversity of stages in redemptive history,
and diversity between the comparatively small beginnings and the
climactic ending. How do we handle this unity in diversity and diversity
in unity?
We can start with some simple principles. God is one God. He
is consistent with himself. So the earlier and the later harmonize, as
do the poetic song and the historical narrative and the proverb and
the prophetic vision. At the same time, God as Lord of redemption
and Lord of history unfolds his purposes gradually, and we need to
listen respectfully to the intentionally sparse communications at earlier
points.
Communication has depth. A single human speaker can unpack
an opening statement further on in his speech and provide illumination
that gives new depth to its meaning. Even human communication
is not always one-dimensionally flat and shallow. Human
writing can suggest depths or allude to implications without spelling
them out. Or it can spell out these matters in additional communication,
perhaps at a later time or in a sequel. How much more so when
it comes to divine communication!
So no simple formula is going to provide all the answers to interpreting
divine communication at earlier and later times. The most
basic principle is the principle of knowing God. God is deep, infinitely
deep. Is he also inaccessible? No. God made us and has come
to us to save us in Christ. His words are therefore accessible through
the mediation of Christ in the power of the Holy Spirit—the Spirit
of Christ whom the ascended Jesus has poured out on his people
(Acts 2:33). Knowing God is truly the path of ¡°the light of dawn,
which shines brighter and brighter until full day¡± (Prov 4:18). Or, as
Jesus says, ¡°I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to
the Father except through me¡± (John 14:6).
16 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
Recommended Reading From Vern S. Poythress
God-Centered Biblical Interpretation. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 1999.
In the Beginning Was the Word: Language—A God-Centered Approach.
Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2009.
Inerrancy and Worldview: Answering Modern Challenges to the Bible.
Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012.
¡°Dispensing with Merely Human Meaning: Gains and Losses From
Focusing on the Human Author, Illustrated by Zephaniah
1:2–3.¡± Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 57, no. 3
(2014): 481–99.
Reading the Word of God in the Presence of God: A Handbook for
Biblical Interpretation. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016.
2
Old Testament
Hermeneutics
IAIN M. DUGUID
The interpretation of the Old Testament is sometimes presented as
a complex affair, a task only to be attempted by those with advanced
degrees and a fluent understanding of Ancient Near Eastern culture,
intertestamental literature, and ancient languages. To be sure, each
of these areas of study can be a great asset to our understanding of
the Word of God, but in this short essay I want to suggest four basic
principles for interpreting the Old Testament that can be grasped
and applied thoughtfully by almost anyone who approaches this part
of the Scriptures.
I. The Center of the Old Testament Is Christ
The Old Testament is not primarily a book about ancient history
or culture, though it contains many things that are historical and
that describe ancient cultures. Centrally, the Old Testament is a book
about Christ, and more specifically, about his sufferings and the glories
that will follow—that is, it is a book about the promise of a coming
Messiah through whose sufferings God will establish his glorious,
eternal kingdom. To say this is simply to repeat what Jesus told the
discouraged disciples on the road to Emmaus:
18 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
And he said to them, ¡°O foolish ones, and slow of heart to
believe all that the prophets have spoken! Was it not necessary
that the Christ should suffer these things and enter into his
glory?¡± And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he
interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning
himself. (Luke 24:25–27)
This is the same message that Jesus gave to all of his followers
during his forty-day master class on Old Testament interpretation,
delivered between his resurrection and his ascension:
Then he said to them, ¡°These are my words that I spoke to
you while I was still with you, that everything written about
me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms
must be fulfilled.¡± Then he opened their minds to understand
the Scriptures, and said to them, ¡°Thus it is written, that the
Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead,
and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed
in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem.¡±
(Luke 24:44–47)
This understanding of the Old Testament was the consistent
message of the preaching of the apostles. So, for example, Paul told
King Agrippa:
I stand here testifying both to small and great, saying nothing
but what the prophets and Moses said would come to pass:
that the Christ must suffer and that, by being the first to rise
from the dead, he would proclaim light both to our people
and to the Gentiles. (Acts 26:22b–23; cf. Acts 3:18, 21, 24;
17:2–3; 1 Pet 1:10–11)
Old Testament Hermeneutics | 19
Thus, when we interpret the Old Testament correctly, without
allegory or artificial manipulation but in accordance with Jesus¡¯s own
teaching, the central message on every page is Christ. That does not
mean that every verse taken by itself contains a hidden allusion to
Christ, but that the central thrust of every passage leads us in some
way to the central message of the gospel.
II. The Old Testament Had a Message
for its Original Hearers, Not Just for Us
This is an important complementary truth to the first principle. It is
a mistake to read the Old Testament as if its Christ-centered message
were only revealed to us, who read it through the lens of its fulfillment
in him. Hebrews 1:1 tells us that God spoke in the past to his
Old Testament people through his servants the prophets; he speaks
now as well to us, climactically, through his Son. The Pentateuch
spoke God¡¯s Word of challenge and promise to those who were about
to enter the Promised Land in the days of Moses.1 Isaiah spoke to
those who lived in Judah in the days of Ahaz and Hezekiah, not only
to those who read his prophecies about the Babylonian exile and
about Christ after their fulfillment. The Book of Kings addressed the
spiritual needs of those who found themselves wrenched away from
the Promised Land because of their sins and the sins of their fathers.
Ezekiel and the Chronicler wrote to discouraged believers in their
own times who wondered about the value of any attempt to serve
God in the aftermath of the exile.
This is not to say that the prophets never spoke of the future.
On the contrary, they repeatedly predicted the future, sometimes in
1. See my article ¡°Hagar the Egyptian: A Note on the Allure of Egypt in the Abraham
Cycle,¡± Westminster Theological Journal 56, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 419–21, for an example.
20 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
extravagantly precise detail (for example, Isa 44:28; Dan 11). Part of
the Lord¡¯s claim to uniqueness among the gods of the Ancient Near
East is the fact that he alone spoke the future accurately through his
prophets (Isa 45:18–21; Amos 3:7).2 Indeed, one of the scriptural
tests of a prophet¡¯s authenticity is the fact that the words he speaks
are fulfilled (Deut 18:22); such a test of course requires fulfilled predictions.
Those predictions that came true in the short term were
intended as encouragements to believe the promises of God that had
not yet been fulfilled.
These first two principles lead us to make two further observations
about interpreting the Old Testament.
III. The Old Testament Writers Did Not Fully
Understand Everything about Which They Wrote
This reality is clear in a number of places in the Old Testament itself.
Prophets like Daniel and Zechariah frequently did not completely
grasp the visions that they were shown (see Dan 8:27; Zech 4:13).
Indeed, it is hard to imagine how Daniel could have fully understood
a prophecy like that in Daniel 11, which contains so many specific
references to people and events during the period between Alexander
the Great and Antiochus Epiphanes.3 As Numbers 12:6–8 reminds
us, prophecy by its very nature is often dark and obscure, unlike
the Lord¡¯s clear word through Moses. In particular, some aspects of
God¡¯s purposes in Christ necessarily remained veiled throughout the
Old Testament period, only to be clarified through the coming of
the Son.
2. Hence the repeated refrain, ¡°Then you will know that I am the Lord.¡± Fulfillment of the
prophetic word attests the identity of Yahweh as well as that of his messengers.
3. According to John Goldingay, Daniel 11 refers in a specific, historically identifiable
way to thirteen of the sixteen rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms between 322
and 163 BC. See Goldingay, Daniel (Word Biblical Commentary; Dallas: Word, 1989),
295–6.
Old Testament Hermeneutics | 21
One way to think about this is to imagine attending a ¡°prophecy
conference¡± in the year 10 BC. By then, the participants would
have had the entire Old Testament, as well as several centuries of
reflection on it during the intertestamental period. Yet if someone
had presented a paper anticipating the crucifixion of the Messiah
on the basis of Psalm 22, or his resurrection on the basis of Psalm
16, or even the virgin birth on the basis of Isaiah 7, some vigorous
debate might have ensued. It was not obvious ahead of time that
these prophecies should be interpreted in that way. However, with
the benefit of hindsight, the New Testament authors rightly identified
these texts as finding their anticipated fulfilment in Christ¡¯s life,
death, and resurrection. It is not that the New Testament writers
were creatively assigning new and alien meanings to these old texts.
Rather, the force of Jesus¡¯s statement that it was ¡°necessary that the
Christ should suffer these things¡± (Luke 24:26) suggests that a proper
reading of the Old Testament expectation of the messiah necessarily
compelled them to recognize Jesus Christ as its true fulfillment. This
is why Paul could argue from the Old Testament so convincingly in
the context of Jewish evangelism.
IV. The Old Testament Writers Truly
Understood Some Things They Described
For that reason, it is important not to overstress the ignorance of the
divinely inspired prophets, as well as the other writers of the Old
Testament. No one was in doubt as to the signification of Micah¡¯s
prophecy of a coming ruler to be born in Bethlehem (Mic 5:2):
when Herod asked the birthplace of the messiah the answer was
unequivocal (Matt 2:5–6). When Jesus says that Abraham saw his
day and rejoiced (John 8:58), he surely had in mind (at least) the
events that transpired in Genesis 22. Abraham did not have a full
understanding of the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would
22 | SEEING CHRIST IN ALL OF SCRIPTURE
follow, perhaps, but he had a true understanding that just as the
Lord had provided the ram to die in place of his beloved son, Isaac,
so too the Lord would provide a substitute for Abraham¡¯s own sins.
Daniel may not have grasped the exact details of the coming conflict
between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids as described in Daniel 11;
he did, however, recognize that the broad philosophy of history presented
in that chapter provided a clear rebuke to his overly optimistic
hope that, with the completion of the seventy years of judgment
prophesied in Jeremiah, the end would soon be nigh (see Dan 9:2).
Instead, before the end would come, there would continue to be
wars and rumors of wars, with empires rising and falling, but when
the dust finally settled, the triumph would belong to the saints of
the Most High.
Likewise, whatever Daniel himself made of his vision in Daniel
7 of a human figure (a ¡°son of man¡±) who possessed uniquely divine
attributes (¡°coming on the clouds¡±), the central meaning of that vision
was clearly explained to him by the angel in 7:16–17. Daniel
understood the central message that there would be continuing trials
and sufferings for the saints before the final glories that would come
only when God intervened to bring history to a close. It is precisely
because of what he understood that Daniel was alarmed by the vision
(7:28), as well as comforted by the promise of ultimate triumph
through this mysterious ¡°son of man.¡±
Moreover, the content of these visions that the Old Te



 

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